Journal of Animal Diversity

Journal of Animal Diversity

Species–area relationships in anthropogenically modified green spaces: Species–area dynamics in anthropogenic landscapes

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
Amith S J
Chetan Nag
Prathusha T
Centre for Urban Ecology, Bio-Diversity, Evolution and Climate Change (CUBEC) JAIN(Deemed-to-be UNIVERSITY) #319, 17th Cross, 25th Main, J P Nagar 6th Phase, Bengaluru Karnataka, India- 560078
Abstract
Urban environments are increasingly recognized for their potential to support biodiversity conservation at both local and landscape scales. However, the ecological functioning of managed urban green spaces remains insufficiently understood. This study investigated whether the classical Species–Area Relationship (SAR) is maintained within anthropogenically modified urban landscapes by examining two golf course ecosystems in Karnataka, India, as model systems. Zion Hills Golf County (ZHGC) represented a larger, less urbanized, and structurally heterogeneous landscape, whereas Bangalore Golf Club (BGC) represented a smaller, spatially constrained site embedded within a densely urbanized matrix. Faunal diversity was evaluated using species richness, abundance, evenness, and the Shannon–Wiener and Simpson diversity indices. Statistical analyses included one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), Pearson correlation, and linear regression. ZHGC supported substantially greater species richness (104 species) than BGC (59 species), reflecting its larger habitat area and greater ecological heterogeneity. Although differences in alpha diversity were not statistically significant (one-way ANOVA: F = 0.235, P > 0.05), linear regression revealed strong and highly significant positive relationships between habitat area and species richness (ZHGC: R² = 0.9581, P < 0.0001; BGC: R² = 0.9665, P < 0.0001). Species richness increased with habitat area and decreased with spatial isolation, indicating that SAR patterns remain robust even within engineered urban landscapes. Although these managed ecosystems cannot replace natural forests, our findings demonstrate that large, structurally complex urban green spaces can make meaningful contributions to biodiversity conservation in metropolitan regions. The persistence of SAR patterns in these modified ecosystems underscores the ecological value of well-designed and sustainably managed urban green spaces as complementary habitats that enhance biodiversity retention in rapidly expanding cities.
Keywords
Biodiversity conservation
eecological scaling
spatial heterogeneity
Species richness
urban habitats
Subjects
Ahmed, S., and Arpitha, M. (2022). Analysis of drought severity and vegetation condition prediction using satellite remote sensing indices in Kolar and Chikkaballapura Districts, Karnataka State. Earth & Environmental Science Research & Reviews. http://doi.org/10.33140/EESRR.
Anderson, M. J., Crist, T. O., Chase, J. M., Vellend, M., Inouye, B. D., Freestone, A. L., Sanders, N. J., Cornell, H. V., Comita, L. S., Davies, K. F., Harrison, S. P., Kraft, N. J. B., Stegen, J. C. and Swenson, N. G. (2011). Navigating the multiple meanings of beta diversity: a roadmap for the practicing ecologist. Ecology Letters, 14 (1): 19–28. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01552.x.
Bibby, C. J. (2000). Bird Census Techniques. Academic Press, London.
Bramson, M., Cox, J. T. and Durrett, R. (1996). Spatial models for species area curves. Annals of Probability, 24 (4): 1727–1751.
Colding, J. and Folke, C. (2009). The role of golf courses in biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management. Ecosystems, 12 (2): 191–206.
Colding, J., Lundberg, J. and Folke, C. (2006). Incorporating green-area user groups in urban ecosystem management. AMBIO, 35 (5): 237–244.
Connor, E. F. and Simberloff, D. (1979). The assembly of species communities: chance or competition? Ecology, 60 (6): 1132–1140.
Deng, Y., Wang, S., Bai, X., Tian, Y., Wu, L., Xiao, J., Chen, F. and Qian, Q. (2022). Relationship among species diversity, biomass, and environmental factors across grassland ecosystems. Science of the Total Environment, 806: 150477.
Ferenc, M., Sedláček, O., Fuchs, R., et al. (2014). Are cities different? Patterns of species richness and beta diversity of urban bird communities and regional species assemblages in Europe. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 23 (4): 479–489.
Forman, R. T. T. and Godron, M. (1981). Patches and structural components for a landscape ecology. BioScience, 31 (10): 733–740.
Fox, B. J. and Fox, M. D. (2000). Factors determining mammal species richness on habitat islands and isolates: habitat diversity, disturbance, species interactions and guild assembly rules. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 9 (1): 19–37. http://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00176.x
Franklin, J. F. (1993). Preserving biodiversity: species, ecosystems, or landscapes? Ecological Applications, 3 (2): 202–205. http://doi.org/10.2307/1941820
Freeman, R. E. (1999). Divergent stakeholder theory. Academy of Management Review, 24 (2): 233–236.
Goulson, D. (2019). The insect apocalypse, and why it matters. Current Biology, 29 (19): R967–R971. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.069
Guzy, J. C., Price, S. J. and Dorcas, M. E. (2012). The spatial configuration of wetlands affects amphibian metacommunity structure. Landscape Ecology, 27 (7): 967–980.
Guzy, J. C., McCoy, E. D., Deyle, A. C., Gonzalez, S. M. and Halstead, B. J. (2013). Urbanization influences amphibian communities in wetland habitats. Urban Ecosystems, 16 (3): 471–485.
Haas, K., Hooten, M. and Rizzo, D. (2020). Habitat heterogeneity and species richness in fragmented landscapes. Ecological Applications, 30 (6): e02102.
Harishnaika, K. S. (2022). Climatic variability and environmental change in Kolar District, Karnataka. Journal of Environmental Studies, 45: 112–118.
He, C., Zhang, J. and Ma, K. (2022). Species–area relationships in ecological theory and conservation. Ecological Indicators, 135: 108547. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.108547
Helden, A. J. and Leather, S. R. (2004). Biodiversity on urban roundabouts—Hemiptera, management and the species–area relationship. Basic and Applied Ecology, 5 (4): 367–377.
Ives, C. D., Lentini, P. E., Threlfall, C. G., Ikin, K., Shanahan, D. F., Garrard, G. E., Bekessy, S. A., Fuller, R. A., Mumaw, L., Rayner, L., Rowe, R., Valentine, L. E. and Kendal, D. (2016). Cities are hotspots for threatened species. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 25 (1): 117–126. http://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12404
Kowarik, I. (2011). Novel urban ecosystems, biodiversity, and conservation. Environmental Pollution, 159 (8–9): 1974–1983. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.02.022
Lizée, M. H., Manel, S., Mauffrey, J. F., Tatoni, T. and Deschamps-Cottin, M. (2012). Matrix configuration and patch isolation influences override the species–area relationship for urban butterfly communities. Landscape Ecology, 27 (2): 159–169. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-011-9689-6
Loeuille, N. and Leibold, M. A. (2008). Evolution in metacommunities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105 (23): 7895–7900. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0709096105
Lomolino, M. V. (2000). Ecology's most general law. Journal of Biogeography, 27 (1): 17–26. http://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00393.x
Losos, J. B. and Schluter, D. (2000). Analysis of an evolutionary species–area relationship. Nature, 408 (6814): 847–850. http://doi.org/10.1038/35048558
MacArthur, R. H. (1965). Patterns of species diversity. Biological Reviews, 40 (4): 510–533. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1965.tb00815.x
MacArthur, R. H. and Wilson, E. O. (1967). The Theory of Island Biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Matias, M. G., Gravel, D. and Mouquet, N. (2014). Beta diversity as a function of dispersal. Ecology Letters, 17 (5): 552–560. http://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12262
Murgui, E. (2007). Effects of seasonality on the species–area relationship: a case study with birds in urban parks. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 16 (3): 319–329. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00293.x
Pollard, E. (1977). A method for assessing changes in the abundance of butterflies. Biological Conservation, 12 (2): 115–134. http://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(77)90065-9
Power, M. E. (1972). Habitat heterogeneity and species diversity. Ecology, 53: 145–151.
R Core Team. (2024). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria.
Rajashekar, S. (2004). Rainfall variability in Karnataka. Indian Journal of Meteorology, 18: 45–52.
Starzomski, B. M., Parker, R. L. and Srivastava, D. S. (2008). Regional biodiversity and species assemblages. Ecology Letters, 11: 127–138.
Taylor, L. R., Woiwod, I. P. and Perry, J. N. (2006). The density dependence of insect populations. Journal of Animal Ecology, 75 (1): 20–29.
Tuomisto, H. (2010). A diversity of beta diversities: straightening up a concept gone awry. Ecology Letters, 13 (3): 264–278. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01452.x
Whittaker, R. H. (1960). Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California. Ecological Monographs, 30 (3): 279–338. http://doi.org/10.2307/1943563
Yuan, F. and Bauer, M. E. (2014). Comparison of impervious surface area and normalized difference vegetation index as indicators of surface urban heat island effects. Remote Sensing of Environment, 106: 375–386.